Public vs private management Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Public vs private management - Research Paper Example The first difference is on the ownership of the organization where the public sectors are run and financed by the government, and the private sector is operated and owned by the corporation or the private owners. In the public sector, all employees including the managers work for the governments while the employees in the private sector work for the organization (Dresang, 2009). The other difference between the two sectors is that public sectors are established by law. This fact discourages managers from changing the laws depending on the changing conditions. On the other hand, directors in a private sector can change the objective when necessary. The output of a private sector can be valued by the paying customers. This is easily captured on the organization’s objectives, missions and decision criteria. However, it may not be easy for the market forces to dictate the gains of a public sector entity (Mgbeke, 2009). Therefore, private sectors have the responsibility to generate satisfactory returns on their investment and private investors get more motivation to put more investments. Contrary to this, public sectors still have the assumption that their capital is free, and the need to gain massive profits are ignored (Dresang, 2009). Skills One skill a public manager should develop is the ability to communicate with the public. The communication with the pubic and other outsiders is a paramount and effective skill for the public manager.

Drivers License for Illegal Immigrants Essay Example for Free

Drivers License for Illegal Immigrants Essay Should illegal immigrants be given a driver`s license in California? In the Sacramento Bee article â€Å"License battle resurfaces† by Jim Sanders on February 26, 2012, the author informs that Assemblyman Gil Cedillo tried again to grant driver`s licenses to undocumented immigrants which were vetoed by Republican Gov. Arnold Schwarzenegger years ago, but now Gil Cedillo wants to work with Democratic Gov. Jerry Brown on this issue that can â€Å"pass muster† because Latinos played a key role to help Brown get elected in 2010. In 2011, Brown signed the dream act to expand college financial aid for undocumented immigrants who have lived in California for years, so many Latinos cheered him. As a voter and California resident, I am strongly against this legislation. I have a question. Do you know the meaning of undocumented immigrants? I think it means illegal. I am in favor of Assemblyman Jim Nielsen, R-Gerber`s points that â€Å"You should not legitimize a fundamentally illegal act. † America is an immigrant country. We welcome all immigrants, and we are expecting them to abide by immigrants` laws and enter the country legally. I am opposed to Gil Cedillo`s issue that California allows undocumented immigrants to be licensed, tested, and insured. What if potential terrorists take advantage of this issue to obtain driver`s licenses easily? Because in years past, the issue has caused fierce debate over what security measures should be required if current law is changed. Another thought is what if other immigrants know this issue, then they just enter the country with no documents, no worry. Simply use this issue. Besides the above, if this issue could help the government make more money on driver`s licenses, car insurance and taxes, etc, why couldn`t the government figure out the proper way to make money instead? As American citizens, everybody knows what a driver`s license means—to them it means they are legal in America since that moment they got their driver licenses. They can apply for bank cards, social security cards and passports, and they can travel in and out of America freely. They have all the rights that American citizens should have. Giving someone here illegally a driver`s license is much more than giving them the privilege of driving. It`s giving them the key to the kingdom. According to the article, the veteran GOP lawmaker said â€Å"Bad ideas seem to die slowly in the Capital. † I agree that the issue â€Å"Granting driver`s licenses to undocumented immigrants† is a bad idea. However, the issue supporters agree that California should allow undocumented immigrants to be licensed, tested, and insured. According to the article â€Å"Supporters say undocumented immigrants should be able to drive to work or take their children to school without fear of having their vehicles confiscated if they are stopped by police. A lot of undocumented immigrants have lived in California for years. Their kids were born in America. They need a job to make a living, feed their family, and educate their kids. In America, no matter where you go, you need a car, so you have to drive every day. â€Å"Many undocumented immigrants drive now, but without licenses, insurance or state testing to ensure competence. † Therefore, Los Angeles Police Chief Charlie Beck told Los Angeles Times on last Wednesday that he is in favor of granting driver`s licenses to illegal immigrants. If this issue passes, all the illegal immigrants will need to get their driver`s licenses, buy their own cars, buy car insurance etc, so then that will not only help the American economy but also make our highways safer. All of the legal American citizens will worry less when they are involved in a car accident on the road. Then all undocumented immigrants are becoming documented immigrants. They will live in America happily forever. Therefore, granting driver`s licenses to undocumented immigrants is a win-win-win issue. At last, granting driver`s licenses to undocumented immigrants is not a key issue for the illegal immigrants. If the government can figure out a better way to legitimize an illegal act, especially for the illegal immigrants who have lived in California for years and their children were born and raised here, that is going to be a fundamentally key issue to solve the illegal immigrants’ problem. It is not about the safety issue on the road or making more money for the state. For a better America, a safer security system, and a peaceful country, every American citizen should use their judgments wisely. Legitimizing a fundamentally illegal act should not ever be allowed! Let good ideas live strongly in the Capital!

Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl :: essays papers

Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl In her essay, â€Å"Loopholes of Resistance,† Michelle Burnham argues that â€Å"Aunt Marthy’s garret does not offer a retreat from the oppressive conditions of slavery – as, one might argue, the communal life in Aunt Marthy’s house does – so much as it enacts a repetition of them†¦[Thus] Harriet Jacobs escapes reigning discourses in structures only in the very process of affirming them† (289). In order to support this, one must first agree that Aunt Marthy’s house provides a retreat from slavery. I do not. Burnham seems to view the life inside Aunt Marthy’s house as one outside of and apart from slavery where family structure can exist, the mind can find some rest, comfort can be given, and a sense of peace and humanity can be achieved. In contrast, Burnham views the garret as a physical embodiment of the horrors of slavery, a place where family can only dream about being together, the mind is subjected to psychological warfare, comfort is non-existent, and only the fear and apprehension of inhumanity can be found. It is true that Aunt Marthy’s house paints and entirely different, much less severe, picture of slavery than that of the garret, but still, it is a picture of slavery differing only in that it temporarily masks the harsh realities of slavery whereas the garret openly portrays them. The garret’s close proximity to the house is symbolic of the ever-lurking presence of slavery and its power to break down and destroy families and lives until there is nothing left. Throughout her novel, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Harriet Jacobs presents these and several other structures that suggest a possible retreat from slavery, may appear from the outside to provide such a retreat, but ideally never can. Among these structures are religion, literacy, family, self, and freedom. Because it offers them the possibility of community and identity, many slaves find themselves strongly attached to religion. They cannot build a family structure and they cannot be identified by family name, but through the church, they can build a community and identify themselves as Christians. This comfort becomes virtually non-existent for it too is controlled by the slaveowners who â€Å"came to the conclusion that it would be well to give the slaves enough of religious instruction to keep them from murdering their masters† (57). The fact that one person could have the ability to control the amount of religion another person has and his purpose for having it diminishes any sense of community or identity that it may have initially provided. Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl :: essays papers Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl In her essay, â€Å"Loopholes of Resistance,† Michelle Burnham argues that â€Å"Aunt Marthy’s garret does not offer a retreat from the oppressive conditions of slavery – as, one might argue, the communal life in Aunt Marthy’s house does – so much as it enacts a repetition of them†¦[Thus] Harriet Jacobs escapes reigning discourses in structures only in the very process of affirming them† (289). In order to support this, one must first agree that Aunt Marthy’s house provides a retreat from slavery. I do not. Burnham seems to view the life inside Aunt Marthy’s house as one outside of and apart from slavery where family structure can exist, the mind can find some rest, comfort can be given, and a sense of peace and humanity can be achieved. In contrast, Burnham views the garret as a physical embodiment of the horrors of slavery, a place where family can only dream about being together, the mind is subjected to psychological warfare, comfort is non-existent, and only the fear and apprehension of inhumanity can be found. It is true that Aunt Marthy’s house paints and entirely different, much less severe, picture of slavery than that of the garret, but still, it is a picture of slavery differing only in that it temporarily masks the harsh realities of slavery whereas the garret openly portrays them. The garret’s close proximity to the house is symbolic of the ever-lurking presence of slavery and its power to break down and destroy families and lives until there is nothing left. Throughout her novel, Incidents in the Life of a Slave Girl, Harriet Jacobs presents these and several other structures that suggest a possible retreat from slavery, may appear from the outside to provide such a retreat, but ideally never can. Among these structures are religion, literacy, family, self, and freedom. Because it offers them the possibility of community and identity, many slaves find themselves strongly attached to religion. They cannot build a family structure and they cannot be identified by family name, but through the church, they can build a community and identify themselves as Christians. This comfort becomes virtually non-existent for it too is controlled by the slaveowners who â€Å"came to the conclusion that it would be well to give the slaves enough of religious instruction to keep them from murdering their masters† (57). The fact that one person could have the ability to control the amount of religion another person has and his purpose for having it diminishes any sense of community or identity that it may have initially provided.

Pschological assessment Essay

Section A Write an essay on the process you would follow in developing a psychological assessment measure. Discuss the steps that you would take in this process, including how you would choose items for your test, how you would evaluate the reliability and validity of your test, and the issue of establishing norms. Discuss the theory comprehensively and illustrate your understanding with an example or examples. Introduction The process of developing a psychological test is a complex and lengthy one. ( Foxcroft & Roodt, 2001) but aspects related to the planning of a psychological test are not always sufficiently emphasised and sometimes not mentioned at all ( Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 1997). When the test is to be used in a multicultural context, attention needs to be paid to the cultural relevance (and potential bias) of the test right from the planning and design phase instead of only being sensitive to cultural aspects from the item writing phase onwards. Also given that we do not have a long history of developing culturally appropriate tests applicable to diverse groups in South Africa, test developers need to grapple with basic issues such as what methods of test administration might be appropriate or inappropriate for certain cultural groups and what language to develop the test in, for example. More time needs to be spent in the planning phase exploring and critically considering test design issues. Planning phase The first and most important step in developing psychological measures is the planning phase. Planning involves writing out the skeleton of what one aims to achieve. Careful though needs to go into deciding on the aim of the measure, defining the content of the measure and key elements of the test plan. a test plan consists of the following aspects: (a) specifying the purpose and rationale for the test as well as the intended target population, (b) defining the construct (content domain) and creating a set of test specifications to guide item writing, (c) choosing the test format, (d) choosing the item format, and (e) specifying the administration and scoring methods (Robertson, 1990). Specifying the aim of the measure The first step is to state the aim of the measure, the construct I will use and how the outcome will be used. If I am conducting this study in South Africa I will also need to mention that the measure will be used in a multicultural society. I would need to elaborate on what I mean by multicultural by highlighting the context. I would state the age of the test takers and their educational status. The information concluded above is important because it may have an impact on the test specifications and design. I would need to state whether the test would be paper-based or computer-based. When that decision is made I would need to consider whether the test-takers are familiar with such tests. The test takers may underperform on the evaluation because they are not proficient in the instrument of measure. This may impact the validity of the study to be conducted. I would also need to ascertain whether the test will be administered individually or in a group setting. Because psychological constructs are brewed in western societies, the emphasis is on individualism. When working in a multicultural society, however, it is important to consider the norms of the society I would be working in. In some cultures, for example, the group identity is valued over the individual identity. This could have an effect on the content of the measure. Defining the content of the measure Here I need to figure out what I want to measure and why. This will show me what to focus on during the other steps. A working definition of the construct is needed. This includes identifying exactly what I aim to get out of this research study. To do this I need to embark on a comprehensive literature review. I will see how my topic has been investigated in the past and spot the gaps. I can now make the decision on whether I am conducting a new study or adapting an existing study into the South African context. Later I will need to make the same decision on the instrument I will use for data gathering. Since I would be working in South Africa, I need to decide on whether separate norms should be developed for test takers from advantaged and disadvantaged schooling backgrounds and/or for urban and rural areas. I would assemble a team of content, language and cultural experts to scrutinise the content being developed. Nell (1994) states that  language is a critical moderator variable of test performance. If the test taker is not proficient in that language, it is difficult to ascertain whether poor performance is due to language or communication difficulty or that the test-taker has a low level of the construct being measured. I would produce the test in a bilingual format and specify the source language. Work would need to be done to ensure that the construct is meaningful for each group. Developing the test plan (specifications) Once the construct to be assessed has been defined and operationalised, a decision needs to be reached regarding what approach will be employed to guide the development of the test content and specifications. Decisions will be made regarding the format to be used (open-ended items, forced-choice items etc.), how they will be scored (objective or subjective tests), and whether time limits will be imposed. The language and cultural experts are once again needed during this step. Sometimes psychological constructs, conceptualised in western society, do not have a known equivalent in African discourse. For such constructs the translated version would need to explain the construct in a way that is closest to the English meaning. This will require more time for the African language test taker. The test specification should eliminate the possibility of construct bias. The format therefore needs to be standardised for a variety of cultural groups or it should at least include items that will be considered easy, moderate and difficult by all groups. Although these steps follow after each other, I will need to go backwards and forwards to ensure content and construct validity. Item writing The second step is item writing. Once the test specifications have been finalised, the team of experts writes or develops the items. The trend in South Africa has been to simply adapt an already made test to accommodate South African test takers. This is not necessarily the easier option. Firstly, concepts are not always understood in the same way in different societies. For example, the term depression is sometimes taken to mean with  very sad in some societies. It is therefore important to ensure construct validity even for an English test given to English mother tongue speakers of a different society to that of the tests’ origin. If the assessment measure will be administered to children, face validity will be ensured through the use of big writing, use of colour and drawings. The length of the items should also be considered. With every step of items writing reliability is ensured. Reviewing the items An item bank is then developed and items reviewed in terms of whether they meet the content specification and whether they are well written. Items which do not meet the specifications are removed from the bank before it can be used to generate criteria-referenced tests. The team of experts should focus on both content validity and indicate whether the items are from stereotyping and potential bias. The experts will then return the item list with recommendations. They will need to be re-written or revised. Assembling and pre-testing the experimental version of the measure Items need to be arranged in a logical way. Since we are dealing with a multicultural society, we need to ensure that the items are balanced and on appropriate pages. The length of the items in each category needs to be finalised. For long problems based items, time adjustments need to be made. A decision would have been made with regards to whether the test is paper-based or computer-based. The appropriate apparatus needs to be made available. The  Pre-testing the experimental version of the measure The test items have to be administered to a large group of examinees. This sample should be representative of the population for which the eventual test is intended. This will be the norm group. Items analysis phase During this phase items are checked for relevance. Again we see if each item is reliable and valid to the study. The characteristics of the items can be evaluated using the classical test theory or the item response theory. At the item level, the CTT model is relatively simple. CTT does not invoke a complex theoretical model to relate an examinee’s ability to success on a particular item. Instead, CTT collectively considers a pool of examinees and empirically examines their success rate on an item (assuming it is dichotomously scored). This success rate of a particular pool of examinees on an item, well known as the p value of the item, is used as the index for the item difficulty (actually, it is an inverse indicator of item difficulty, with higher value indicating an easier item). The ability of an item to discriminate between higher ability examinees and lower ability examinees is known as item discrimination, which is often expressed statistically as the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient between the scores on the item (e.g., 0 and 1 on an item scored right-wrong) and the scores on the total test. When an item is dichotomously scored, this estimate is often computed as a point-biserial correlation coefficient. IRT, on the other hand, is more theory grounded and models the probabilistic distribution of examinees’ success at the item level. As its name indicates, IRT primarily focuses on the item-level information in contrast to the CTT’s primary focus on test-level information. The IRT framework encompasses a group of models, and the applicability of each model in a particular situation depends on the nature of the test items and the viability of different theoretical assumptions about the test items. Revising and standardizing the final version of the measure Once the qualitative and quantitative information has been gathered, the test is administered to the large sample for standardization. All the items that were found to be unclear are simplified. Vocabulary and grammar is corrected. Split-half reliability is assessed. The translated version is checked through back translation (into the source language). The items are finalised for the test. The final database is used to check on reliability  and validity. The administration and scoring instruction may need to be modified. Then the final version is administered. Technical evaluation and establishing norms The items can be analysed using the item response theory. The characteristics of each item may be represented graphically be means of a graph which relates an individuals’ ability score with their probability of passing the items. Items with large variances are selected. The scores obtained by the norm group in the final test form are referred to as the norms of the test. To compare an individual’s score with the norms, their raw score will be converted to the same kind of derived score as that in which the test norms are reported (e.g. percentile ranks, McCall’s T scores etc). Publishing and ongoing refinements A test manual is compiled before a measure published. The manual should make information on the psychometric properties of the test easily understandable. It will be updated from time to time as more information becomes available. Section B List the steps that should be followed in the adaption of an assessment measure for cross-cultural application and briefly explain what each step means. 1. Reasons for adapting measures  Cross-cultural assessment has become a sensitive issue due to specific concerns regarding the use of standardized tests across cultures. By adapting an instrument, the researcher is able to compare the already-existing data with newly acquired data, thus allowing for cross-cultural studies both on the national and international level. Adaptations also can conserve time and expenses (Hambleton, 1993). Test adaptation can lead to increased fairness in assessment by allowing individuals to be assessed in the language of their choice (Hambleton & Kanjee, 1995). 2. Important considerations when adapting measures The test can be compromised if there are problems between the test takers and the administrator. The administrator should therefore familiar with the culture of the test-taker. They cannot take it for granted that the test taker will be exposed to the format of the test. This could lead to the score representing a lack of skill with regards to the format of the test instead of measuring the construct being assessed. Some languages, like isiZulu, require more time to be spent reading therefore would require more time to complete. 3. Designs for adapting measures Before selecting an assessment instrument for use in counseling or research, counselors and researchers are trained to verify that the test is appropriate for use with their population. This includes investigation of validity, reliability, and appropriate norm groups to which the population is to be compared. Validity and reliability take on additional dimensions in cross-cultural testing as does the question of the appropriate norm group. The instrument must be validly adapted, the test items must have conceptual and linguistic equivalence, and the test and the test items must be bias free (Fouad, 1993; Geisinger, 1994). Two basic methods for test adaptation have been identified: forward translation and back-translation. In forward translation, the original test in the source language is translated into the target language and then bilinguals are asked to compare the original version with the adapted version (Hambleton, 1993; 1994). In back-translation, the test is translated into the target language and then it is re-translated back to the source language. This process can be repeated several times. Once the process is complete, the final back-translated version is compared to the original version (Hambleton, 1994). Each of these adaptation processes has their strengths and limitations. 4. Bias analysis and differential item functioning Another issue that must be considered in cross-cultural assessment is test bias. The test user must ascertain that the test and the test items do not systematically discriminate against one cultural group or another. Test bias  may occur when the contents of the test are more familiar to one group than to another or when the tests have differential predictive validity across groups (Fouad, 1994). Culture plays a significant role in cross-cultural assessment. Whenever tests developed in one culture are used with another culture there is the potential for misinterpretation and stagnation unless cultural issues are considered. Issues of test adaptation, test equivalence and test bias must be considered in order to fully utilize the benefit of cross-cultural assessment. 5. Steps for maximizing success in test adaption Hembleton (2004) summarised nine key steps that should be addressed when adapting or translating assessment instruments. 6. Challenges related to test adaption in south Africa A disadvantage of adaptation includes the risk of imposing conclusions based on concepts that exist in one culture but may not exist in the other. There are no guarantees that the concept in the source culture exists in the target culture (Lonner & Berry, 1986). Another disadvantage of adapting existing tests for use in another culture is that if certain constructs measured in the original version are not found in the target population, or if the construct is manifested in a different manner, the resulting scores can prove to be misleading (Hambleton, 1994). Despite the difficulties associated with using adapted instruments, this practice is important because it allows for greater generalizability and allows for investigation of differences among a growing diverse population. Once the test has been adapted, test equivalence must be determined. Reference Foxcroft, C.D. & Roodt, G. (2009). An introduction to psychological assessment in South Africa. Johannesburg: Oxford University Press Hambleton, R. K. (2001). The next generation of the ITC Test Translation and Adaptation Guidelines. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 17, 164-172. Hambleton, R. K. (2004). Issues, designs, and technical guidelines for adapting tests into multiple languages and cultures. In R. K. Hambleton, P. F. Merenda, & C. D. Spielberger (Eds.), Adapting educational and psychological tests for cross-cultural assessment (pp. 3-38). Mahwah,NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Van Ede, D.M. (1996). How to adapt a measuring instrument for use with various cultural groups: a practical step-by-step introduction. South African Journal of Higher Education, 10, 153-160.

Linguistics and Children Essay

The power of language to reflect culture and influence thinking was first proposed by an American linguist and anthropologist, Edward Sapir (1884–1939), and his student, Benjamin Whorf (1897–1941). The Sapir–Whorf hypothesis stated that the way we think and view the world is determined by our language (Anderson & Lightfoot, 2002; Crystal, 1987; Hayes, Ornstein, & Gage, 1987). Instances of cultural language differences are evidenced in that some languages have specific words for concepts whereas other languages use several words to represent a specific concept. For example, the Arabic language includes many specific words for designating a certain type of horse or camel (Crystal, 1987). To make such distinctions in English, where specific words do not exist, adjectives would be used preceding the concept label, such as quarter horse or dray horse. Cultural differences have also been noted in the ways in which language is used pragmatically. In our American culture, new skills are typically taught and learned through verbal instruction (Slobin, 1979). In some cultures, new skills are learned through nonverbal observation. A distinction has also been made between cultures that encourage independent learning and those that encourage cooperative learning (McLeod, 1994). Differences in the social roles of adults and children also influence how language is used. Home and school contexts may represent different cultures, subcultures, or both and may influence language acquisition in noticeable ways. Nonverbal cues (e. g. , facial expression) and contextual cues (e. g. , shared experience) have different communicative roles in different cultures (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2003). In some cultures, prelinguistic children (who are not yet verbalizing) are spoken about rather than spoken to (Heath, 1983). Children may be expected, and thus taught, to speak only when an adult addresses them. They are not encouraged to initiate conversations with adults or to join spontaneously in ongoing adult conversations. Additionally, in some cultures, children who enthusiastically volunteer answers at school are considered show-offs (Peregoy & Boyle, 1993). In some cultural settings, children are not asked recitational questions. Instead, they are asked only questions of clarification or for new information. Thus, when these children experience recitational questions in a school setting, they may be confused as to the purpose of the questioning and the expected response. Further cultural differences in how language is used in educational settings have been documented by Tharp (1994). These differences include variations in how stories are told, the wait time given by teachers to students during questioning sequences, the rhythmic patterns of the verbal interactions, and the patterns of conversational turn-taking. During the 1970s and 1980s, educators and linguists researched and debated the verbal-deficit perspective. This perspective contended that anyone who did not use standard English did not have a valid language and thus was verbally deficient. Although the verbal-deficit perspective has now been proven invalid, it is important to understand the research that was conducted to either support or discredit that perspective. Bernstein (1971), Bereiter and Englemann (1966), and Labov (1979) were among the researchers who studied language differences between different social groups, including middle- and lower-income groups and ethnic groups. This body of research identified specific differences in the way children from different socioeconomic and ethnic backgrounds used language in school and out-of-school settings. Implications of this research have been widely discussed and interpreted in a variety of ways. Basil Bernstein (1971) documented the different linguistic codes used by children from lower- and middle-income families in England. Lower-income children were described as using a â€Å"restricted code† or highly contextualized language, while children from middle-income families used an â€Å"elaborated code,† or decontextualized language. His research also documented differences in school achievement for these two groups of children. Interpretations of Bernstein’s work concluded a cause–effect relation between language use and school success, supporting a â€Å"verbal deficit† perspective: the working-class environment of the low-income children created a verbal deficiency responsible for subsequent low educational achievement (Winch, 1990). Here in the United States, Bereiter and Englemann (1966) conducted further research from the verbal-deficit perspective. They focused on the language of preschool African American children in Urbana, Illinois. Bereiter and Engleman concluded that the language used by African American children was not a valid language and thus recommended that these children needed to be taught English in the school setting (Winch, 1990). Academically oriented preschool curricula were developed (e. g. , Blank, Rose, & Berlin, 1978) to provide the needed English language training for verbally deficient children. William Labov (1979; Winch, 1990) explored social dialects of lower income African American children in urban settings. He studied the differences in children’s in-school and out-of-school (e. g. , playground) language competencies. His data directly challenged the verbal-deficit theory because it documented the elaborated and systematic linguistic properties of Black English. His research supported the idea that Black English was a separate language system with its own grammar and rules. Labov described dialects as having â€Å"slightly different versions of the same rules, extending and modifying the grammatical processes which are common to all dialects of English† (Labov, 1995, p.54). Labov’s research supported the idea that verbal differences are not verbal deficits. Because Labov’s research focused on language used in academic and nonschool settings, he also created a greater awareness of the role of context and dialect in communication. Tough (1977) conducted a longitudinal study of children from advantaged (college-educated, professional parents) and disadvantaged (parents who were in unskilled or semiskilled occupations) homes. The study began when the children were 3 years old, with follow-up at 5 1? 2 and 7 1? 2 years. At age 3, the disadvantaged children and the advantaged children showed significant differences in the ways they used language. Specifically, the disadvantaged children did not use language to recall and give details of prior experiences, anticipate upcoming events and possible outcomes, reason about current and remembered events, problem solve using language for planning and considering alternatives, reach solutions, create and sustain dramatic play events, and understand others’ experiences and feelings. When these children were studied again at 5 1? 2 and 7 1? 2 years, the disadvantaged children produced shorter, less complex responses. This research contributed to our understanding that children from different cultural environments may be learning to use language differently and may experience difficulty in participating in the language environment in classrooms. Further awareness of the role of cultural environments in the acquisition of language was influenced in the 1980s by ethnographic research techniques that were used by language researchers. Ethnographic studies have contributed significantly to our understanding of linguistic diversity. Ethnography uses participant observation in real-life settings and focuses on individuals within their social and cultural contexts. In her ethnographic study, Heath (1983) explored children’s acquisition of language at home and school in two communities in the southeastern United States. She found differences in communication in working-class black and white families as well as among middle-class townspeople of both ethnic groups. Heath also described differences in story structures, language, and sense of â€Å"truth† (fiction vs. nonfiction) that children learned at home that were different from those expected at school. To be successful at school, these children had to be able â€Å"to recognize when a story is expected to be true, when to stick to the facts, and when to use their imaginations† (Heath, 1983, p. 294). Heath’s research also documented valid and authentic differences in the ways language is used and in the ways in which children in those respective communities become competent language users. Heath concluded that the contrasts she found in language were not based on race, but on complex cultural influences in each community. The importance of family context in language acquisition was more recently described by Hart and Risley (1995, 1999). Findings from their longitudinal study document the significance of â€Å"talkativeness† in families in influencing language acquisition rather than the family’s socioeconomic status or ethnic group identity. Differences in language use were attributed to the complex family culture—not simply due to socioeconomic status or ethnic group identity. Among the families that were studied, the most important difference was in the amount of talking. Children in families where there was more talking developed higher levels of language in the areas of vocabulary growth and vocabulary use. These differences were strongly linked to school performance at age 9. Among these families, Hart and Risley (1995) identified five quality features in parents’ language interactions with their children: 1. Language diversity: the variation and amount of nouns and modifiers used by the parents 2. Feedback tone: the positive feedback given to children’s participation in the interaction 3. Symbolic emphasis: the emphasis placed on focusing on names and associated relations of the concepts and the recall of those symbols 4. Guidance style: parental interaction that used asking rather than demanding in eliciting specific behavior from the child 5. Responsiveness: parental responsiveness to requests or questions initiated by children Hart and Risley (1995) speculated that these categories may be â€Å"important for the language-based analytic and symbolic competencies upon which advanced education and a global economy depend† (p. 193). A current hypothesis on why children from diverse linguistic backgrounds experience difficulty in school is the socialization mismatch hypothesis. This hypothesis â€Å"predicts that children are more likely to succeed in school when the home language and literacy socialization patterns are similar to those that are used and valued in school† (Faltis, 1998, p. 23). This hypothesis has been applied to children who speak a nonstandard English dialect as well as to children who are learning a second language. Home language socialization patterns may differ from those favored in the school classroom in the following ways (Faltis, 1998): 1. The amount of talk directed to preschool children 2. The participation of young children as conversation partners with adults 3. Opportunities children have to explain or give a personal interpretation of events 4. The types of questions asked of children during storybook sharing 5. The forms of narrative that are used (e. g. , fiction, nonfiction, or ongoing narratives) In addition, the social interaction patterns used in the classroom may vary from the home culture’s with respect to expectations for competitive versus collaborative or cooperative activities as well as the â€Å"courtesies and conventions of conversations† (Tharp, 1994, p. 140).

Reflective Education through Curriculum Essays

Reflective Education through Curriculum Essays Reflective Education through Curriculum Essay Reflective Education through Curriculum Essay Essay Topic: Reflective ISSN : 2278 5639 Global Online Electronic International Interdisciplinary Research Journal (GOEIIRJ) {Bi- Monthly} Volume II, Special Issue I on Reflective Education October 2013 REFLECTIVE EDUCATION THROUGH CURRICULUM Santosh A. Melashetty Assistant Professor KER soctetys M. Ed. P. G. centre Karnatak College of Education, Bidar INTRODUCTION : Reflection means to describe one basic level of thinking i. e. what you did ? What others did? and how you felt ? etc. Reflection has often been viewed as synonymous with critical thinking. Reflection is an important human activity in which people ecapture their experience. Think about it, null over and evaluate it. It is the working with experience that is important in teaching / learning. John Dewey (1933) states, reflection involves a willingness to engage in constant self appraisal and development, reflection implies flexibility, rigorous analysis is social awareness. Reflection is being increasingly viewed as a valuable learning method for different purpose. There are main two important types of reflections i. e. dialogical and critical reflection and it follows the guided and action research method and it goes in cyclic ay. REFLECTIVE EDUCATION : Reflective Education refers to the process of the educator studying his/her own teaching methods and determining what works best for the students regarding subjects and moreover critical and analytical thinking about the learning and teaching activities. Teaching learning are complex and there is no one right approach, reflecting on different versions of teaching approaches and reshaping past and current experiences will lead to improvement in teaching, learning and education reflection in action helps teacher in making the professional knowledge hat they will gain from their experience in classroom. REFLECTIVE EDUCATION THROUGH CURRICULUM : In reflective education educator engage in thinking critical thinking and analytical approach about curriculum and think to apply the previous experience to present situation makes teaching learning approaches and activities more meaningful. Secondary Education Commission (1952-54) says, curriculum includes the totality of the experiences that a pupils receives through the manifold activity, that go on in the school, classroom, wrww. goeiir]. com page 21 ibrary, laboratory, play ground and workshop etc. In this sense whole life of the school becomes curriculum. Cunningham says, curriculum is a tool in the hands of the artist to mould his material according to his ideals in his studio. DIALOGIC REFLECTIVE PRACTICE IN EDUCATION : Dialogic reflection means, discourse with the self to explore a given event or incident. For example, the individual thinks about what educators are going to do in their lectures, about the information they would like to convey, the method they intend to use, the level of engagement and so on. In advance of delivery of the class about content, after wards they then consider how well they achieved their intended goals and which aspects require further attention regarding the content. METHOD FOLLOWED IN DIALOGIC REFLECTION : Guided method followed in dialogic reflection, it involves engaging with a series of questions regarding the contents. For example: Topic: Micro organisms. * What most important / useful / relevant event or idea? Definitions, structure, useful and harmful micro organisms. How can be explained? Inductive and deductive approach, demonstration method etc. How is it similar to and different from other events? Here Educator think and apply the post knowledge, experience to the present situation regarding content. What I have learned from this? Educator learns thinking about the micro organisms, gaining experiences and able to share the experiences. How does this mean for any future situations? This means help in sharing experiences. These questions can be designed by the educators themselves and serve as a guide the reflection process. These types of questions help to educator to explore and econsider your motivational or rationale for your actions. CRITICAL REFLECTIVE PRACTICE IN EDUCATION : Critical reflection refers to efforts to accounting for the broader, historic, cultural and page 22 political values in framing practical problems to arrive at a solution. Critical reflection helps transformational learning that can be happen either gradually in from a sudden and it after the way people see themselves and their world. METHOD FOLLOWED IN CRITICAL REFLECTION : The method applied in critical reflection is action research. This involves ystematically changing the teaching, using on the ground evidence that suggests the changes, you make are in right directions and enhancing student learning. This Method goes in an analytic way of content and finds the solution. The target of the action research is the teacher and the reflection is considered transformational that the teaching is being altered as a result of the reflection and is deemed more accurate. The educators should frame the following questions before presentation in critical reflection Example : Topic : Water Pollution What was the problem ? Water pollution. What was/were the causes of the problem ? Educators analyze the cause of water pollution, drainage water, industrial waste etc. How did you deal with the problem then ? i. e. stating problem, data collection, analysis and interpretation. How did your solution to the problem relate to your theory of teaching learning After going through the action research to the problem to come conclusion i. e. industrial waste is main cause for the water pollution. CONCLUSION : Reflection means think about your past knowledge, experience to the present ituation. It may be the simple or critical both are beneficial in the teaching, learning process, Educator understands their own style, abilities skill etc. and learner also know themselves. In present scenario, Reflection Education has many advantages in teaching learning process. i. e. Educator goes good profession development and learners learn effectively only it is used in real practice through curriculum. page 23 REFERENCES : http://ask. reference. com/information/Education/Reflective 2) http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Reflective_practice 3) http://infed. g/mobi/reflection-learning-and-education/ 4) 5) http://wiki. literacytent. org/index. php/Curriculum_Development_Questions/Reflections 6) cuhk. edu. hk/aJelt/v017/art1 . htm 7) emu. edu/education/model/ 8) ericdigests. org/2001-3/reflective. htm 9) learningandteaching. info/learning/reflecti. htm ncbi. nlm. nih. goWpubmed/10222968 papermasters. com/education-reflection. html scribd. com/doc/48162689/Reflective-Teaching ukcle. ac. uk/resources/personal-development-planning/curriculum/ page 24

A Mir Kiss Essays

A Mir Kiss Essays A Mir Kiss Paper A Mir Kiss Paper A Mir Kiss Case Analysis: Organizational Behavior and Culture Davenport University 01/09/11 I. The Situation: In preparation for an expedition to Mars, a joint international studies program, Institute for Biomedical Problems (IBMP), set up a replica in Moscow where three international researchers were joined with four Russian cosmonauts. The three researches were from Japan, Canada, and Austria. None of the participants spoke English as their first language, however they each communicated in English at varying levels of proficiency during their stay. The replica was no larger than the size of a train car. As part of the study, the researchers were asked to join the Russian cosmonauts for 110 days, after the four Russians had already completed almost half of their 240 days in isolation. Only one female, Judith Lapierre, was invited to participate in the experiment. She had a PhD in public health and social medicine, and had previously conducted isolation research in Antarctica. It should also be mentioned that this would be her fourth trip to Russia enabling her to learn the language. Lapierre claims that the Japanese and Austrian participants viewed her as something favorable. Lapierre created a comfortable environment by rearranging furniture, hanging posters and putting down a tablecloth on the kitchen table. Lapierre explained that the Russians only viewed their environment as something to be endured. It was during a New Year’s Eve party, when an event ensued that created tension between the participants in the study. After drinking vodka, two of the Russian cosmonauts engaged in a fistfight and had to be restrained by the other men. The two involved generally did not cope well with each other even before the incident. Soon after, the Russian commander grabbed Lapierre and dragged her out of view of the cameras, where he proceeded to kiss her aggressively. Lapierre fought him off, however, her message was not received and he tried to kiss her again in the morning. Though complaints were raised, the IBMP took no action, rather, they explained that they wanted the crew members to solve their own personal problems with mature discussion. They further explained after the project had ended that â€Å"If the crew can’t solve problems among themselves, they can’t work together. Ten days after the fight the doors between the Russian and the international crew’s chambers were barred. This request was made by the international team. Lapierre later explained that this action was taken for fear of violence, not the incident involving her and the general. II. Key Issues: An experiment to study isolation, in preparation for space travel ended in controversy. Judith Lapierre, who was 32 at the time of the study was the only female among several males. The New Year’s Eve party rapidly turned sour when vodka became part of the mix with the international crew. A violent fight broke out between two of the Russian cosmonauts, and a kiss between the Russian commander and Judith Lapierre. The two Russians had apparently settled their differences within minutes of the disagreement. However, Lapierre had later said â€Å"An unwanted French kiss when the woman says ‘no’ is completely unacceptable† (Warren, 2000). There are many key issues at hand in the described text. Firstly, there was limited space for the participants to live and cope with one another. Secondly, with an extended stay in isolation tension as well as mental status will tend to rise and fall on a daily basis. Thirdly, there is a group of international crew members with different cultures, none of them with a common language. Finally, adding alcohol to the mix might have been the boiling point for a frustrated crew (Warren, 2000). The biggest rift appears, however, to have been the violence that Lapierre witnessed the night of the party. The men looking at pornographic websites she could understand and deal with. Understanding that she was to be the only woman, she knew that she would ultimately be coming to a man’s place, but the violence had crossed the line. The project’s supervisors have conceded that they were thoughtless and gave Lapierre a lack of support. Conversely, they still argue that she should have been a little more tolerant herself. Furthermore, they have claimed that Lapierre had placed psychological stress on the Russian crew members, and that she would have done well to study the Russian culture further (Warren, 2000). III. The Problem: Although the conflict was in many ways, a boiling point, the problem arose with the way the study was conducted. There are several problems that stem from a lack of cultural understanding and tolerance. With several cultures you have variations of morality, beliefs and identity. Little is known of exercises that were performed beforehand or during the isolation that enabled understanding of the individual crew members. Additionally, the crew members would obviously have trouble communicating to each other. It specifically states that none of the crew members had a common first language, and they all had a varying level of English language comprehension. One could assume that such a language barrier would cause frustration among the crew members. Again, little is known about how much support the crew members had during the experiment. But by the feel of the article, one could assume that they had very little, with the goal of the experiment being for the crew members to work out differences on their own. In addition, little is known about the personalities or the disagreement that had stirred the fight during the party. All that is known is that the two Russian men did not get along with each other. The reason for their conflict goes unmentioned, and over the course of the experiment may not matter. The overall goal of the study was to see how or if crew members could cope. This would mean that whatever conflicts arose, would have be solved by mature conversing between the members. It could also be suggested that the crew members had not received training in dealing so closely with other individuals. One could almost deem a communication skills building course necessary before the experiment had ensued. This would allow conflicts that arose during frustration situations o be explored and extinguished by conversing with each other. Should they have had better communication skills no such disagreement would have been an issue. The final problem was a trigger, the alcohol, which lowered the inhibitions of the participating Russian men involved in the conflict. Generally well received alcohol provides a release factor generally enhancing the mood one has previously to drinking. Should any of the crew members had been frustrated, as suggested above, the alcohol would have had a profound effect on the men. It should never have been approved. IV. Alternative Solutions: Individuals are always going to disagree when working together in groups, and conflicts are going to arise. The result of conflict in the workplace is essentially the responsibility of the person in charge. It is not known if someone was at the head of the research group within the Mir replica. Regardless, there are practical ways to dissolve conflicts in the workplace. Firstly, the issue at hand should be known which would allow the problem to be discussed among the party involved. Every person should be able to clarify his or her perspectives and opinions about the conflict. Diving into the thoughts and processes of the crew members allow for understanding of each other leading to tolerance. Issues need to be identified and discussed openly among members of the group. This is something that can be done to keep issues from becoming problems. A process for resolving conflicts should have been set ahead of time by the members of the experiment. An agreement should be made in case there are differing viewpoints and then compromises should be made (Anonymous). V. Recommendation: Conflict usually sparks negative associations leading to arguments, hatred, anger etc. Conflict has been defined by a process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected or is about to negatively affect something the first party cares about. That is the definition as written by Stephen Robbins, author of Organizational Behavior. Dr. David G. Javitch describes conflict as tension, stating that conflict itself is neither good nor bad. But by adding our own personal experiences to conflict, we give it value. This value can be either positive or negative based on your thinking or understanding of the conflict. Javitch continues by saying that people often respond to conflict in different ways. Sometimes people tend to shy away from such situations, where they do not want to get involved in challenging conversations with heated debates. Some people try to overcome fear of conflict by overcompensating, and react in ways that are often considered offensive, thereby creating their own conflict. Then again, some realize that conflict is not always negative and can provide an opportunity to communicate with fellow peers open-mindedly. This is the one solution that should have taken place for the members participating in the isolation training. They should have kept an open mind, resolving their conflicts with communication rather than acting out in frustration. The researchers, including Lapierre, and the Russian cosmonauts should have viewed their conflicts as an opportunity to communicate and resolve the issues at hand. : Anonymous. â€Å"Tips for Dealing with Workplace Conflict†. EPSON. Retrieved from: allbusiness. com/human-resources/workforce-management-conflict-resolution/12260-1. html Javitch, Dr. David G. â€Å"Conflict in the Workplace. † October 30, 2007. Retrieved from: entrepreneur. com/humanresources/employeemanagementcolumnistdavidjavitch/article186120. html Warren, Marcus. â€Å"A Mir kiss? No, it was sex assault, says astronaut. † UK Telegraph. March 28, 2000. Retrieved from: mail-archive. com/[emailprotected] aol. com/msg38857. html

Spanish Indirect-Object Pronouns

Spanish Indirect-Object Pronouns Spanish verbs can be accompanied by direct and indirect objects. A direct object is the noun or pronoun that the verb acts directly on, while an indirect object is the person affected by the action but not acted directly upon. So in a sentence such as I see Sam, Sam is the direct object of see because Sam is the object that is seen. But in a sentence such as I am writing Sam a letter, Sam is the indirect object. The item being written is letter, so letter is the direct object. Sam is the indirect object as one who is affected by the verbs action on the direct object. Spanish Differentiates Betweem Direct and Indirect Objects If youre learning Spanish, the distinction can be important to make because Spanish, unlike English, sometimes uses different pronouns for direct and indirect objects. It is also important to note that many Spanish sentences use indirect-object pronouns where a different construction is used in English. For example, me pintà ³ la casa would typically be translated as he painted the house for me. In fact, one sign of an indirect object in English is that it usually can be understood, to use me as an example, as for me or to me. For instance, he bought her the ring is the same as he bought the ring for her. In that first sentence, her is an indirect object. (The Spanish equivalent would be à ©l le comprà ³ el anillo.) Here are the indirect-object pronouns along with their English equivalents and examples of their uses: me - me - Juan me da una camisa. (John is giving me a shirt.)te - you (singular familiar) - Juan te da una camisa. (John is giving you a shirt.)le - you (singular formal), him, her - Juan le da una camisa a usted. (John is giving you a shirt.)  Juan le da una camisa a à ©l.  (John is giving him a shirt.)  Juan le da una camisa a ella.  (John is giving her a shirt.)nos - us - Marà ­a nos da unas camisas. (Mary is giving us some shirts.)os - you (plural familiar) - Marà ­a os da unas camisas. (Mary is giving you some shirts.)les - you (plural formal), them - Marà ­a les da unas camisas. (Mary is giving you some shirts, or Mary is giving them some shirts.) Note that the direct-object and indirect-object pronouns are identical in the first and second persons. Where they differ is in the third person, where the only indirect objects (except in what is usually considered substandard speech) are le and les. Using Indirect Objects in Special Cases As some of the above examples indicate, an indirect-object pronoun is used whenever a sentence includes an indirect object, even though a pronoun might not be used in English. A further clause can be added for clarity or emphasis, but, unlike in English, an indirect pronoun is the norm. For example, le escribà ­ could mean I wrote to him, I wrote to her or I wrote to you, depending on the context. To clarify, we can add a prepositional phrase, as in le escribà ­ a ella for I wrote to her. Note that le is still typically used, even though a ella makes it redundant. Both direct- and indirect-object pronouns are typically placed before conjugated verbs, as in the above examples. They can be (but dont have to be) attached to infinitives and present participles: Te voy a escribir una carta and voy a escribirte una carta (I am going to write you a letter) are both correct, as are le estoy comprando un coche and estoy comprndole un coche (I am buying him a car). In commands, direct and/or indirect objects are attached to affirmative commands but precede negative commands. Escrà ­beme (write me), but no me escribas (dont write me). Note that in affirmative commands and when attaching an object to a present participle, attaching the object at the end of the verb can result in an orthographic accent being needed to keep the stress on the correct syllable. If you have a direct object and an indirect object with the same verb, the indirect object comes first. Te las escribo. (I am writing them to you.) Sample Sentences Using Indirect-Object Pronouns Indirect objects are shown in these sentences in boldface. Object pronouns in regular type are direct objects or objects of prepositions. No le voy a dar el gusto a nadie de vencerme tan facilmente. (I am not going to give anyone the pleasure of defeating me so easily. A nadie is a redundant phrase; le remains necessary. The -me of vencerme is a direct object.) ¿Nunca me has visto beber algo ms que una copa de vino? (Have you never seen me drink more than one cup of wine? Beber here is an infinitive acting as a direct object.)Le construyeron un gimnasio para que pudiera ejercitarse. (They built him/her a gymnasium so he/she could exercise. Note that the indirect object here can apply to both males and females.)Queremos decirle a ella que ella forma gran parte de nuestras vidas. (We want to tell her that she makes up a big part of our lives. Que and the words following function as a direct object.)

International Financial Management Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

International Financial Management - Assignment Example S. dollar. If the same mobile phone cost 1000 dollars in U.S., American consumers would buy it from India. When large volumes of such mobile phones were purchased from India by American customers, the price of rupee will go up until one dollar equals 25 Indian rupees. Purchasing power parity (PPP) theory can be divided into two different categories; absolute PPP and relative PPP. Absolute PPP is based on the belief that without international barriers, consumers will shift their demand to wherever prices are lower whereas relative PPP is based on the notion that market imperfections (tariffs, transportation costs, etc), prices of the same products need not be same in different countries when measured in a common currency Madura, 2009, p. 214-215) In economics inflation refers to the rise of prices of all the goods except the money. The values of the currencies of countries with higher inflation would be less compared to the values of countries with lower inflation as the purchasing power of the consumers will be lessened by the increase in prices in countries with higher inflation. The rationale behind PPP theory is that when inflation occurs at a higher level in a particular country, foreign demand for goods from that country would be decreased whereas demand for foreign goods from that country should increase and subsequently, the home currency of that country will weaken. The currency depreciation will continue till the foreign country’s goods are no more attractive than the domestic goods (Relationships Among Inflation, Interest Rates, and Exchange Rates, n. d, p.107) In order to check whether PPP exists, it is better to choose two countries and compare the differences in inflation and the exchange rate change different periods. If the exchange rate changes are in accordance with the PPP theory, then we can safely conclude that PPP exists. The major limitation in testing PPP is that based on the periods chosen, results can vary. The periods

OLI model Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

OLI model - Essay Example The above approach neglects critical issues, which are critical in defining a multinational firm. The model has three areas where its main advantages are based, that is; It has its advantages in explaining the MNEs existence. Ownership has its advantages in the sense that it addresses the question of why that some firms will go abroad and not others, it postulates that there are some benefits that allow it to overpower the cost of operating abroad. Since firms are the collection of different assets and MNEs candidate has a higher-than-average asset level to have an internal public goods character. The assets can be used in the production in various areas without reduction of their effectiveness. The assets include product dimensional factor, common to model in terms of a single index of the production of the firm. The highest sophisticated treatment in these lines is found in immediate work on non-homogeneous firms that combines the horizontal simplest version motive for FDI, with an assumption of their productivity differences (Faeth, 2009). The OLI model has an aspect to pay a sunk cost in productivity determination. Low-production can be produced only for the purposes of the home market; while medium productivity ones are chosen to pay for export fixed costs, but the most productive ones chosen to pay for higher costs for FDI engagements. The above predictions are in accordance with the evidence. On a further contribution, the model provides that industries with greater heterogeneities have more firms engaged in the FDI. Location advantages address the question of where the firm chooses to locate. Though the theory of international trade has taken ownership advantages just for granted, to make them in more obvious ways, this model has emphasized more on exploration of alternative motives to be located by MNEs abroad. The major factor that has created much attention is the clear distinction between vertical and horizontal FDI. Horizontal FDI happens when

Organizational structure Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Organizational structure - Essay Example The present optimal organizational structure of the MH Company is not designed to complement the company’s plans for expanding their business internationally. With the present organizational structure, the Vice President of International Sales is ill equipped to meet the challenges of the global business environment primarily because macro environment elements significantly influence the market strategy for global business entities. Marketing comprises micro and macro economic factors. The micro economic factors like price, products etc. are directly under the control of the organizations and can be manipulated to suit the market conditions. The macro environment factors, on the other hand are elements that are external but have major impact on the industry performance: economic; demographic trend; changing socio-cultural paradigm; developing new environmental compulsions; advancing technology; and political environment of the region (Kotler et al, 2007). Sjostrand and Tyrstrup, in one of their article, have argued that managerial leadership needs to be approached as a relational, ongoing social construction process rather than as a single clear cut phenomenon (2001). Indeed, for any organization to expand and succeed, it is crucial that its people are recognized as vital part of its strategy and organizational goals and objectives be interpreted in the context of the changing paradigms of the times. Beardwell and Claydon have also asserted that the theoretical concept of human resource management needs to be looked from a wider perspective of providing the invaluable human capital that can meet the challenges of the rapid globalization and advancing technology. (Beardwell, Claydon, 2007). With the global competition becoming increasingly stiff, the jobs specifications are becoming less rigid and changing the overall perspective of job criteria and employment. The HR strategy needs to develop its unique organizational culture with well defined vision

The Positive and Negative Effects of Confucianism in East Asian Essay - 1

The Positive and Negative Effects of Confucianism in East Asian Cultures - Essay Example This report stresses that the philosophy of Confucianism was practiced in many cultures and countries in East Asia like China, Japan, Taiwan, Korea Vietnam and various Chinese occupied territories like Singapore. China however, was the birthplace of Confucianism. It was came into being from the sixth century to the third century B.C., an age described as "The Age of Philosophers". Eventually during 141 to 87 BC, it was declared as a state philosophy by the Emperor Wu of Han. Confucianism in Japan began at a time when â€Å"Confucianism† was quite different from what it is today. During the long years from the fall of the Latter Han dynasty in 220 CE through the Tang (618–907), the classics esteemed by Confucius remained an important part for those who exercised authority over others. This paper declares that the nations of East Asia constitute a part of the fastest growing economy in the world. In the past 30 years, 3 smalls East Asian nations – South Korea, Taiwan and Singapore have exhibited phenomenal economic growth which now rivals that of Japan’s. These countries are now ranked as having the world most successful economies. The explanation for this boom in the economic systems can be dedicated to the fact that Confucian values form an ethical thread across the East Asia nations. The philosophy of Confucianism is dictates a harmonious collective social order. This in turn ensures absolute loyalty and obedience to authority from the subordinates.

Apples pricing strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Apples pricing strategy - Essay Example However, after carefully analyzing this issue, it is safe to say that Apple should continue to price its products at a very high level for numerous reasons. One of the key reasons why Apple should continue to price its products high is due to the fact that Apple’s technology is ten years ahead of the technological curve. That enables Apple to not to avoid the pressure of competing with other firms when it comes to price since consumers are willing to allocate their funds to buy Apple products. For instance, the IPAD 2, should be priced at $500. Although other similar types of tablets that are produced by Dell or the Android are available at a lower price, it does not diminish the fact that the IPAD 2 obliterates the market with its functionality. No product in the market currently possessed two cameras, a dual-core chip, and is light-weight like the IPAD 2. Another reason why Apple should continue to price its products and services high is because of price elasticity. Price el asticity is defined as the response by the product when the price of the product is modified. If Apple was to drop the price of its new Iphone 4 from $599.99 to $399, it would be detrimental to the company itself since the demand will not drastically change, but Apple’s profit margin would be lower [1].

Fashion and its role in our daily lives Research Paper

Fashion and its role in our daily lives - Research Paper Example The paper "Fashion and its role in our daily lives" discovers the role of fashion. More than this, it is the fashion retailer with added promotions and media hypes to boost up the consumer’s need to have the new piece of clothing for his own social projection. A lot of say is also from the word of mouth approach which suggests that the friends and family circles play a very positive and vibrant role in the whole equation. Furthermore, when one talks about the consumers’ needs of understanding their own self in a better manner, one must make note of the self concept which discusses a person’s understanding of his own personality and what does or does not echo his personal statements. This could include issues like his mood shifts that can happen with the changing seasons, the attachment of peculiar feelings with certain colors and going out of the way to buy a certain piece of cloth which is usually not considered a viable option when it comes to buying by the mas ses. Thus the self concept is quintessential since it underpins his own notions related with the fashion needs and in what manner he can best fulfill the very same. As stated earlier, the people who are considered amongst the aspired groups by the relevant sets of consumers, who are about to make a potential purchase, are the right people to which these consumers can actually focus their symbolic wishes and aspirations. This aspired group could be consisting of those people who are looked upon at by the consumers with a sense of desire. and yearning and the consumers always make sure that they buy this just to remain attached with the aspired group. When it comes to these aspired groups, one can easily understand that they consist of models, celebrities, sportspersons or just about anybody who the consumers think worthy of being hailed as something different, so much so to bring about a different in their belief system. Thus symbolic consumption forms up as a very imperative part of the whole thinking mindset of the consumers before they hope to change their fashion practices and mold their own selves in line with what should be their need and in what manner they would fulfill the very same. Rightly put, consumers of fashion are very conscious of their needs and wishes and usually they go out of their budgets to satisfy their whims. This means that there is a lot of room for strengthening the products in the best manner possible when the talk is of quality rather than mere quantity (Thorsell, 2011). Versace has adopted on to the bandwagon of having celebrity endorsements for its fashion apparels and products, much like the other well-known fashion labels that are operational all round the world. Elton John, Axl Rose, Late Princess Diana, Beyonce, The Notorious B.I.G, Elizabeth Hurley, Jennifer Lopez, Demi Moore, Britney Spears, Christina Aguilera, Madonna, Halle Berry, Kate Moss, Jonathan Rhys Meyers, Angela Lindvall, Carolyn Murphy, Christy Turlington, Daria Werbowy and Miriam Escott IV are some of the prominent ones to make Versace such a huge name in the world of fashion. Needless to state, when one tries to understand the rationale behind advertising in the realms of fashion it is quintessential to comprehend that fashion advertising brings with it a sense of bonding and creating linkages amongst the different social groups present within any society. The social groups to which the consumers try their best to attach with have a lot of positive say on the sale of a particular category of fashion (Mcconathy, 2001). This means that

Apples pricing strategy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Apples pricing strategy - Essay Example However, after carefully analyzing this issue, it is safe to say that Apple should continue to price its products at a very high level for numerous reasons. One of the key reasons why Apple should continue to price its products high is due to the fact that Apple’s technology is ten years ahead of the technological curve. That enables Apple to not to avoid the pressure of competing with other firms when it comes to price since consumers are willing to allocate their funds to buy Apple products. For instance, the IPAD 2, should be priced at $500. Although other similar types of tablets that are produced by Dell or the Android are available at a lower price, it does not diminish the fact that the IPAD 2 obliterates the market with its functionality. No product in the market currently possessed two cameras, a dual-core chip, and is light-weight like the IPAD 2. Another reason why Apple should continue to price its products and services high is because of price elasticity. Price el asticity is defined as the response by the product when the price of the product is modified. If Apple was to drop the price of its new Iphone 4 from $599.99 to $399, it would be detrimental to the company itself since the demand will not drastically change, but Apple’s profit margin would be lower [1].

Integrating Values - The Legality, Morality, and Social Responsibility Essay

Integrating Values - The Legality, Morality, and Social Responsibility of Nike - Essay Example For many businessmen, ethical values are not very pertinent to the business. However over the period of time, legal and ethical responsibilities are started to be regarded as one of the prime decisive factor of a business’s success (Ferrell, Fraedrich & Ferrell, 2009). The reason why it is necessary to regulate business practices by legal and ethical evaluation is because business is an essential constituent of the human society (Roa, 2007). Business organizations today are coming to realize that the famous dictum by Milton Freidman, the social responsibility of business is to increase its profits, may not hold much wisdom. This is well-exemplified in the example of Nike. Nike is a world-renowned producer of sportswear and other sports items. However, the company has had to face some major issues in the past related to its unethical conduct. Despite the fact that Nike is not the sole organization to be found guilty of unethical practices, it became the hub of censure and denig ration because of its international presence and significant market share. In response, Nike took myriad of steps to improve its image and to make the process of manufacturing transparent. However, these measures have failed to be of much consequence. This paper will analyze the business practices of Nike in the context of three main values i.e. law, ethics and social responsibility. ... The legal responsibilities of a business are in effect manifestations of the society’s perception of â€Å"codified ethics† and reflect the primary perceptions of just conduct as defined by the law (Carroll & Buchholtz, 2008). The business is accountable to the society for the fulfilment of this role; failing to do so, the business is subjected to a political process where the dissidents are dealt with. Thus, public companies are liable to certain legal responsibilities and are required to comply with them as part of their role in producing goods and services for the society. Nike, however, has been the subject of criticism due to the fact that its policies and practices have not been observant of the laws and legal responsibilities set forth for businesses. It was in the early 1990s that criticism against Nike’s practices began to come to light. Nike has been a famous name in the clothing and sports items industry. Seeing the large market share that it had abroa d and the appeal of lesser manufacturing costs, Nike outsourced to a number of countries more than a couple of decades ago. There was nothing wrong in subcontracting work to other factories in the Southeast region. Nike did not violate any laws and argued that it provided jobs to many people in the poor countries (Hill & Jain, 2009). However its prime motive was to increment the profits it made and to bring down the costs of manufacturing. For many years before the criticism being levelled against the organization gathered substantial support, ethical and legal aspects of business conduct did not enter the cost-profit equation of Nike. Nike’s factories overseas had poor working conditions despite the

Emile Durkheim Essay Example for Free

Emile Durkheim Essay Emile Durkheim was a French sociologist who is considered to be the founding father of sociology. His contributions were in sociology, Anthropology and religions studies. He published and lectured sociological studies in topics like education, crime, religion, suicide and division of labor. Durkheim was born in Pascoag province of Lorraine, formerly in Germany but presently in France, in 1859, April 15. His family line was of rabbi but he rebelled against this title while still a kid. Much of his work was to show that religions bases were from social issues and not a divine issue. Though he rebelled against his family rabbi tradition, his relationship to the family and the Jewish community was still intact. Most of his collaborators and students were drawn from the Jewish community and was even confirmed under the Jewish traditions at the age of thirteen. He followed the regular system in the secular school and at the same time studied Hebrew, Talmud and Old Testament. He at one time acquired some numinous skills in Catholicism from his female teacher who was a catholic herself. However, soon after, he developed some doubts in religion and withdrew his involvement in it. In the college d’Epinal, he was a precocious scholar and this earned him some prizes and honors. This motivated him towards his ambition and transferred to Lycee Louis-le-Grand, a French high school in Paris. Later in 1879, he joined Ecole Normale Superieure a training institution for French scholars. In the ground, he met some major scholars marking French intellectual life. These were; Henri Bergsona a vitalism philosopher, Jean Jaures a social leader, Rauh, Golot and Blondel all philophers and Peirre Janet a psychologist. His interest is a scientific view to society earned him some opposition towards Ecole Normale academic system. It contained no social science which was Durkheim interest. Instead, humanistic studies dominated the academic system. He rebelled against a course that privileged reading of Latin prose and Greek verse and felt recent scientific discoveries and philosophical doctrines should have been the privileged. He was for a solid and structured learning rather than elegant dabbling system which was even rewarded. In 1882 he finished 2nd last in his graduation class. Despite his rebel nature, he had some good friends like Jean Jaures – a socialist leader. He was known to be intelligent, dedicated, a good moral and scientific instructor. (Caser 143) After spending a year in Germany studying sociology, he returned to Bordeaux where a teacher’s training school had just been started. There, he taught social sciences and pedagogy. He was credited for introducing social sciences in the French curriculum. However, his argument that social science could easily explain morality and religion was criticized. Thereafter in 1890s, it became Durkheim’s period of his significant contribution. In 1893, he published his doctoral dissertation â€Å"The Division of labor in Society†, which was a study of how social order was maintained in differing societies. 1895 published â€Å"Rules of the sociological method† manifesting on sociology definition and how it is supposed to be done. One the same year, 1895, he founded Department of Sociology at the University of Bordeaux. In 1898 he published his increasing students and collaborators works in â€Å"LAnnes Sociologuque† a journal he had founded. In 1897, he published â€Å"Suicide† a study providing examples of what the sociological monograph might look. He used quantitative methods in criminology to explore the different crime rates among Protestants and Catholics. He found the strong social control among catholic reduced suicide rates. In 1902, Durkheim was the permanent chair of education and sociology. In the same year 1912, he published his major work â€Å"The elementary forms of Religious life† During the world war which was characterized by propaganda, Durkheim dropped his position on politics which was patriotic rather than internationalism. His former students had died in the war including his own son. This caused Durkheim mental blows. He had lost his son and his rational secular life had been affected by the war. In 1917, he suffered a stroke from emotional strains and exhaustion, recovered months later and resumed to work but later on the same year died. Emile Durkheim was laid to rest in Paris. (Emile Durkheim) His theories and ideas mainly focused social structural assertions of human social tribulations. He covered the social facts, division of labor, education, crime, punishment law and suicide. In social facts, Durkheim felt that the society is much more than what it meant. He incorporated issue like ethnic and religion background. His priority was not on what influences individuals behaviors or acts but in social facts. His argument about social facts is that its existence is more objective and greater than individual’s actions and who makes a society. He argued that only if people in a society were oriented to a common symbolic representation sets, to a common assumption about the environment, could moral unity prevail. Without them any society irrespective of its modernity or primitive nature would degenerate and decay. (Coser 144) In religion, his views are that it is a pervasive aspect in social structure. It is more human oriented aimed at uniting communities. He looks at it effect on an individual and the way they behave, how it can divide a community and its role in the society. Durkheim defines religion as a cultural system of commonly shared beliefs and rituals that provides a sense of ultimate meaning and purpose by creating an idea of reality based on super natural powers (Giddens 534) In division of labor, he argues that despite it aim for material and intellectual development in the society; it has a moral factor more important in that it enhances social unity among people. He argues that people have something in common. This is what binds them together along traditional lines for they are more or less the same. The highly complex division of labor in modern communities was influenced by ‘organic’ solidarity. Specialization and social roles tie individuals to one another. He argues law is a major symbol in the social unity. Punishments acts in it are meant to sustain the unity. Law is not meant to punish but restrain the existing unity. Durkheim called the breaking of social norms state of anomic. (Calhoun 47) He tried to argue suicide by comparing its rates among the Protestants and Catholics. There was less suicide cases in catholic than in protestant. According to him this was as a result of catholic strict norms. His work has influence control theory of sociology. His view on punishment is that it is important in the society setting. He argues social solidarity can only be maintained through punishment. To avoid law breakers who in turn threaten the social unity in a society, punishments act as a threat. However, he calls for a relevant punishment amount claiming it threatens immorality. On crime, he feels it is useful as it leads to reform. It is a response to a pressing social tension and therefore flushes out the pressing issue off the society. (Parsons 32) As a teacher, he had interest in education. He felt it is an important entity in the social structure as it strengthens social cohesion, maintains social roles and maintains division of labor. Emile Durkheim has over the years influenced sociology scholar. In most cases, they have based their studies in his arguments. In most education curriculum, his sociology initiative has been incorporated. His arguments in almost all the areas in social structure have influenced the modern society. Major education institutes offers courses on sociology all over the world. The study of criminology has based its findings in Emile’s ideas. His sociological theories and ideas have been used to explain the causes of crimes in a society. Policy and law makers have used Durkheim’s ideas in making the law. Courts too in their making of judgments they have based it on his ideas. For example cases of suicide and crimes. His findings have been very significant in trying to understand terrorism and terrorism acts. In the modern society, this has been a major threat to the international unity. Religion has been known to be the root cause of such terrorism acts. The 9/11 us terrorism act was by Islamic extremists. The social control in Islamic does not restrict this and therefore it may not look more of a crime to them. Religion has influenced the society greatly, from politics, rituals and practices. On the religion set social norms, members have behaved and acted according to them. Civil wars in most of the word nations are as a result of social norms conflict among different societies. Most of the crimes against humanities have been important in that it has influenced reforms as per Durkheim ideas. Many societies have learnt from past experiences and have significantly reformed to be stronger and united. However, some societies have released social tensions through criminal activities like wars and the end result have been improved unity. This justifies Durkheim’s idea on crime that it is important in reformation. The United Nation body is significant in the world’s unity. The social norms outlined in its organization have a great influence in controlling the world’s societies in their actions. Exploitation is now reduced and independence has prevailed. On the other hand, the larger community i. e. the world is now much more united. Division of labor which is an evident entity in the modern society is more than just sharing responsibilities and roles. It is very significant in social unity. The coming together of specialists from different background has enhanced interaction and understanding among a larger population. In the labor firms, acts that govern a company have been made by their respective policy makers and are significant in the social unity and in role sharing. Durkeim’s scientific views on the society, his contributions and influences are very visible in the modern society.Therefore, he deserves acknowledgment as the founding father of sociology. Work cited: Coser, . Emile Durkheim the Person: sociology at hewett 1977. Retrieved on Friday, October 17, 2008 from http://www. hewett. norfolk. sch. uk/curric/soc/durkheim/durkper. htm Emile Durkheim Site: Emile Durkheim biography: mosaic Retrieved on Friday, October 17, 2008 from http://www. emiledurkheim. net/ Giddens, A Griffiths, S . Religion in the modern society: Polity, 2006. 138- 148 Parsons, T. et al . Theories of Society, New York: Free Press, 2006, 33-48 Calhoun, et al: Classical Sociological Theory . Blackwell Publishing, 2007. 45-66

Mother Daughter Relationships - Family Relations in Amy Tans The Joy L

Family Relations in The Joy Luck Club      Ã‚  Ã‚   One passage, from the novel The Joy Luck Club, written by Amy Tan, reveals the complex relations and emotions that are involved in families. This passage concerns the story of four Chinese women and their daughters.   The author leads the reader through the experiences of the mothers as they left China and came to America.   The daughters have been raised in America, as Americans.   This is what the mothers had wanted although it also causes them great distress.   This is illustrated in the passage I have chosen.    â€Å"My daughter wanted to go to China for her second honeymoon, but now   she is afraid.    â€Å"What if I blend in so well they think I’m one of them?†Ã‚   Waverly asked   me.   â€Å"What if they don’t let me come back to the United States?†    â€Å"When you go to China,† I told her, â€Å"you don’t even need to open your   mouth.   They already know you are an outsider.†    â€Å"What are you talking about?† she asked.   My daughter likes to speak   back.   She likes to question what I say.    â€Å"Aii-ya†, I said.   â€Å"Even if you put on their clothes, even if you take off your   makeup and hide your fancy jewelry, they know.   They know just watching the   way you walk, the way you carry your face.   They know you do not belong.†    My daughter did not look pleased when I told her this, that she didn’t look   Chinese.   She had a sour American look on her face.   Oh, maybe ten years ago, she   would have clapped her hands - hurray! - as if this were good news.   But now she   wants to be Chinese, it is so fashionable.   And I know it is too late.   All those years   I tried to teach her!   She followed my Chinese ways only until she learned how to   walk out the door by herself and go to school.   So now the only Chinese ... ...mes, for all members, but it is also a support network that can be beneficial for everyone.   I think that as the daughters got older they realized more and more how important family is, even though it can be a source of frustration at times. Works Cited and Consulted Feng, Pin-chia. "Amy Tan." Dictionary of Literary Biography. Volume 173: American Novelists since World War II. Fifth Series.   Gale Reseach, 1996: 281 -289. Heung, Marina. "Daughter-Text/Mother-Text: Matrilineage in Amy Tan's Joy Luck Club." Feminist Studies. Fall 1993: 597 - 613. Schell, Orville. "Your Mother is in Your Bones." The New York Times Book Review. 19 March 1989: 3,28. Seaman, Donna, Amy Tan. "The Booklist Interview: Amy Tan."' Booklist. I October 19%.: 256,257. Tan, Amy. The Joy Luck Club. Vintage Contemporaries. New York: A Division of Random House, Inc., 1991.  

Amish: A Culture Worth Learning From Essay -- Amish Culture

Social process theory views criminality as a function of people's interactions with organizations institutions and processes in society. Social process theorists believe that children learn to commit crime by interacting with, and modeling the behaviors of others they admire or respect. Social process theory focuses on upbringing and socialization, which stems from parents, peers, or teachers (Siegel, 2011, p. 13-14). American psychologist B.F. Skinner 1904-1990, developed social process theory he studied behaviorism, which included responses to environmental stimuli and the controlled scientific study of response. This study was termed operant conditioning created through both social and non-social reinforcements. Most learning of criminal behavior occurs in social interactions with other people (B.F. Skinner). Skinners studies included the study of pigeons that helped develop the idea of operant conditioning and shaping of behavior. His study entailed making goals for pigeons, if the goal for the pigeon is to turn to the left, a reward is given for any movement to the left, the rewards are supposed to encourage the left turn. Skinner believed complicated tasks could be broken down in this way and taught until mastered. The main belief of Skinner is everything we do is because of punishment and reward (B.F. Skinner). Edwin Sutherland American criminologist 1883-1950 opposed dominant, biological and psychological explanations for crime. He believed criminal behavior is a product of learning through social interactions and peers influence behavior by social interaction. If a peer group is criminal, the individual will perceive this behavior as normal. Sutherla... ...ademic OneFile. Web. 13 Dec. 2010. Ordnung ord-nu. (2004). In Merriam-Webster's Collegiate(R) Dictionary. Retrieved from http://www.credoreference.com/entry/mwcollegiate/ordnung_ord_nu. Ronald L. Akers. (2010). In Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved December 04, 2010, from Encyclopedia Britannica Online: http://ep.fmcc.edu:5149/EBchecked/topic/1340874/Ronald-L-Akers . Sachs, A. (2010). Management, Plain and Simple. Time, 175(15), Global 4. Retrieved from Academic Search Complete database. Shactman, T. (2006). Rumspringa. New York: North Point Press. Siegel, L. J. (2011). Criminology: the core (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/Cengage Learning. The Amish: Massacre at the Amish school in Nickel Mines, PA. (n.d.). ReligiousTolerance.org by the Ontario Consultants on Religious Tolerance. Retrieved December 4, 2010, from http://www.religioustolerance.org/amish3.htm

Knowledge Management: PETRONAS

Introduction Today, oil and gas companies around the world are not just professional organizations who specialize in mechanical drilling and extraction processes. Increased oil demands and the need for improved productivity have forced these organizations into new methods and knowledge intensive approaches. For instance information technology has now become very much an integral part of the oil exploration and oil extraction business. The collaboration between multi disciplinary teams has become a norm. Real-time information communication from remote reservoirs, and processing of such data in a collaborative environment that involves multiple teams and vendor locations has become an essential part of the business decision making process. In other words, a knowledge based approach underlies the critical business decisions in oil majors. (Jemielniak & Kociatkievicz, 2009, pg 284). As an oil and gas extraction company of the world, with presence in more than 30 countries across the world, PETRONAS is one of the Oil Majors. Being an increasingly competitive sector, skilled staff are always on demand in the Oil and Gas industry. This implies that organizations have to defend against attrition and be armed with effective knowledge management practices that manage vital information about processes, best practices and information about field experts and tacit knowledge about the entire operational processes. Effective knowledge management process is at the heart of business competitiveness and success. Knowledge Management Knowledge is a multidimensional and heterogeneous entity. Proper storage, classification and retrieval of knowledge is critical for innovation, cost control and hence the competitiveness of any industry. Particularly, for knowledge intensive firms such as PETRONAS, where high skilled engineering processes are involved, there is a need for ‘integrated operations’ between various knowledge areas. Ultimately, improving the production optimization process is at the heart of all knowledge management practices in PETRONAS. One of the important areas that lack coordination in the Oil and gas sector in general is the working of the reservoir engineers, the production engineers and the process engineers at the facilities. This implies that operation decisions are not always made in consultation with the onshore engineers. In other words this leads to what is known as the fragmented approach. (Jemielniak & Kociatkievicz) 2009, pg 285 Integrated Operations (Process facility and reservoir sensors and Collaboration among vendors and operators) (Jemielniak & Kociatkievicz, 2009, pg 285) Information technology has now penetrated every area of the production and process control aspects of the Oil and Gas companies. However, most of these IT tools are specialized and lack the integration that makes it difficult to access relevant data for purposes of production analysis and optimization. It is necessary that all the three major divisions (reservoir management, production management and process management) exchange real-time data. A shared information space might be the answer to the problems as it promotes better access to real-time data and integration of the various processes, which is the key to achieving production optimization. (Jemielniak & Kociatkievicz, 2009, pg 284) Knowledge Management in PETRONAS Knowledge management practices are very recent at PETRONAS. As the Knowledge Management manager, Miss Murni Shariff, disclosed in a recent interview, only in 2006 the company seriously focused on KM practices. Prior to that KM was mostly restricted to content and information management. (KMTalk, 2009) There are two types of knowledge namely tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge. Explicit knowledge, as the name suggests, refers to knowledge that could be easily documented. This type of knowledge is gained by reading, observation and discussion. For instance, documented guides about a program or the operational features of a product are examples of explicit knowledge. Tacit knowledge, on the other hand, is more implicit and it is not easy to document it and consequently much harder to share. Tacit knowledge is developed over a period of time when an individual gains insights and details about the various functions in the organization. (MMU, 2006) Currently, PETRONAS is focusing on all efforts towards transferring this tacit knowledge of its staff and making it accessible for future reference and for new workers. Achieving this tacit knowledge sharing pertaining to the various complex processes within the organizations is crucial for the company to reduce costs and become competitive. As Stephen Birell, marketing director of Vardus, a KM company focusing on the Oil and gas sector states, â€Å"The way the industry can drive down cost is by attacking the areas of huge cost which are facilities and drilling. And if everyone follows best practice and shares their learning, you won’t have people making the same mistakes twice. And that ultimately saves money.† (Chowdury, 2006) Three issues are the main motivating factors for the implementation of KM practices across the organization. These are 1) aging workforce- With more than three and half decades since its institution many of the technical staff members at PETRONAS are nearing their retirement age and this mass retirement would drastically impact upon the performance unless swift knowledge management policies are in place to capture the tacit knowledge of these experienced older workforce. 2) The global oil industry is very competitive placing a high premium for the experienced and knowledgeable workforce. High attrition rate at PETRONAS is one big problem as competitors are luring skilled staff. In this context the issue of Trust becomes foremost. The following 5 C’s are recognized as trust factors among knowledge intensive workers. These are a) Competence, b) Commitment, c) Conflict, d) Communication and e) Caring. Of these commitment is foremost and it is the responsibility of the team leade r or the manager to ensure that commitment to the organization and its values are developed naturally as a response to the motivation and example shown by the leader. (Ralston, 2007) Finally, increasing international operations also implies international competition and in this scenario an effective KM plan is indispensible for the organization to smoothly manage and coordinate the international operations. KM makes it possible to simply follow the ‘PETRONAS way’ of transferring knowledge across the different organizations. (KMtalk, 2009) Initially, the main focus was on technology and in removing the hindrances in sharing knowledge stored in varied database formats. However, more than the technical problems it is the problem associated with human acceptance that is currently a pressing issue. In other words, promoting effective change management is the key to implementing KM practices. At PETRONAS new initiatives were implemented to promote better change management. Communities of Practice A new, ‘Communities of practice’ (CoP) initiative was implemented with the idea of starting an effective KM program across the entire organization to better facilitate transfer of information between the various divisions in a swift and effective manner. Currently, there are over 50 CoP’s with each Cop having 30 members. A leader or a champion is chosen among each CoP team based on their performance criteria. The CoP’s were provided with a basic structural framework with which they can implement KM solutions and promote group-wide collaborative values. Regular monitoring of the CoP operations and impact of the same are undertaken. These leaders are also encouraged to share success stories on online CoP newsletter. To encourage enthusiastic participation from the staff, the Knowledge management team is also currently promoting a rewards system wherein the reports from the various Cop’s would be reviewed and the best performing team recognized and awarded (Murni Shariff, 2008) This CoP approach at PETRONAS has shown significant positive results so far with effective information exchange between various operating units already visible across the organization. This would also significantly improve the training for younger generation staff as they fast replace the retiring older generation. A simple online tool that was designed to evaluate the penetration of the CoP based KM practices has confirmed these positive improvements. ( Murni Shariff, 2008) Conclusion Knowledge management practices are critical to the continued competitive growth of any organization. In simple terms it facilitates effective reuse of organizational resources which is tantamount to considerable cost savings. Particularly, in a knowledge intensive and high-tech organization such as PETRONAS, KM practices help to promote better collaboration between multidisciplinary teams. This could help avoid millions of dollars in costs by helping workers avoid unnecessary delays and repetitive mistakes. The current KM practices involving Communities of practice concepts are showing good acceptance among the staff which is important for effective change management. As more and more staff members are encouraged to participate in KM activities, more intensive KM practices and collaborative platforms could be established. This would help in realizing organization wide process integration and overall business alignment. However, regular knowledge auditing is the key to understand the flow of knowledge within the organization and to ascertain areas where improvements could be effected by increasing knowledge sharing. Continued management support is the key as even a small amount of time and resources spent on good KM practices would definitely translate to considerable productivity gains in the longer run. References Dariusz Jemielniak & Jerzy Kociatkievicz, (2009), Handbook of research on Knowledge intensive organizations, Pub by Information Science Reference. Faith Ralston, (2007), How to manage four types of Knowledge Workers- Play Your Best Hand, Adams Media. U.S.A KMtalk, (2009) Knowledge Management in PETRONAS : Interview with Murni Shariff, viewed Jan 23rd 2012, Murni Shariff, (2008), PETRONAS : Engaging Knowledge Worker Communities to Stimulate Innovation and Build Corporate Capability, Viewed Jan 23rd 2012, Naguib Chowdhury, (2006), Knowledge Management Implementation in PETRONAS: A Case Study, Viewed Jan 23rd 2012, Manchester Metropolitan University, (2006) Introduction to Knowledge Management, viewed Jan 24th 2012,